Inflammatory skin disorders result in significant epidermal changes, including keratinocyte hyperproliferation, incomplete differentiation, and impaired barrier. Here we test whether, conversely, an impaired epidermal barrier can promote an inflammatory response. Mice lacking the transcription factor Kruppel-like factor 4 (Klf4) have a severe defect in epidermal barrier acquisition. Transcription profiling of Klf4–/– newborn skin revealed similar changes in gene expression to involved psoriatic plaques, including a significant upregulation of the gap junction protein connexin 26 (Cx26). Ectopic expression of Cx26 from the epidermis-specific involucrin (INV) promoter (INV-Cx26) demonstrated that downregulation of Cx26 is required for barrier acquisition during development. In juvenile and adult mice, persistent Cx26 expression kept wounded epidermis in a hyperproliferative state, blocked the transition to remodeling, and led to an infiltration of immune cells. Mechanistically, ectopic expression of Cx26 in keratinocytes resulted in increased ATP release, which delayed epidermal barrier recovery and promoted an inflammatory response in resident immune cells. These results provide a molecular link between barrier acquisition in utero and epidermal remodeling after wounding. More generally, these studies suggest that the most effective treatments for inflammatory skin disorders might concomitantly suppress the immune response and enhance epidermal differentiation to restore the barrier.
Ali R. Djalilian, David McGaughey, Satyakam Patel, Eun Young Seo, Chenghua Yang, Jun Cheng, Melanija Tomic, Satrajit Sinha, Akemi Ishida-Yamamoto, Julia A. Segre
The human hair follicle bulge is an important niche for keratinocyte stem cells (KSCs). Elucidation of human bulge cell biology could be facilitated by analysis of global gene expression profiles and identification of unique cell-surface markers. The lack of distinctive bulge morphology in human hair follicles has hampered studies of bulge cells and KSCs. In this study, we determined the distribution of label-retaining cells to define the human anagen bulge. Using navigated laser capture microdissection, bulge cells and outer root sheath cells from other follicle regions were obtained and analyzed with cDNA microarrays. Gene transcripts encoding inhibitors of WNT and activin/bone morphogenic protein signaling were overrepresented in the bulge, while genes responsible for cell proliferation were underrepresented, consistent with the existence of quiescent noncycling KSCs in anagen follicles. Positive markers for bulge cells included CD200, PHLDA1, follistatin, and frizzled homolog 1, while CD24, CD34, CD71, and CD146 were preferentially expressed by non-bulge keratinocytes. Importantly, CD200+ cells (CD200hiCD24loCD34loCD71loCD146lo) obtained from hair follicle suspensions demonstrated high colony-forming efficiency in clonogenic assays, indicating successful enrichment of living human bulge stem cells. The stem cell behavior of enriched bulge cells and their utility for gene therapy and hair regeneration will need to be assessed in in vivo assays.
Manabu Ohyama, Atsushi Terunuma, Christine L. Tock, Michael F. Radonovich, Cynthia A. Pise-Masison, Steven B. Hopping, John N. Brady, Mark C. Udey, Jonathan C. Vogel
Nicotinic acid (niacin) has long been used as an antidyslipidemic drug. Its special profile of actions, especially the rise in HDL-cholesterol levels induced by nicotinic acid, is unique among the currently available pharmacological tools to treat lipid disorders. Recently, a G-protein–coupled receptor, termed GPR109A (HM74A in humans, PUMA-G in mice), was described and shown to mediate the nicotinic acid–induced antilipolytic effects in adipocytes. One of the major problems of the pharmacotherapeutical use of nicotinic acid is a strong flushing response. This side effect, although harmless, strongly affects patient compliance. In the present study, we show that mice lacking PUMA-G did not show nicotinic acid–induced flushing. In addition, flushing in response to nicotinic acid was also abrogated in the absence of cyclooxygenase type 1, and mice lacking prostaglandin D2 (PGD2) and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) receptors had reduced flushing responses. The mouse orthologue of GPR109A, PUMA-G, is highly expressed in macrophages and other immune cells, and transplantation of wild-type bone marrow into irradiated PUMA-G–deficient mice restored the nicotinic acid–induced flushing response. Our data clearly indicate that GPR109A mediates nicotinic acid–induced flushing and that this effect involves release of PGE2 and PGD2, most likely from immune cells of the skin.
Zoltán Benyó, Andreas Gille, Jukka Kero, Marion Csiky, Marie Catherine Suchánková, Rolf M. Nüsing, Alexandra Moers, Klaus Pfeffer, Stefan Offermanns
Autoantibodies against the epidermal desmosomal cadherins desmoglein 1 (Dsg1) and Dsg3 have been shown to cause severe to lethal skin blistering clinically defined as pemphigus foliaceus (PF) and pemphigus vulgaris (PV). It is unknown whether antibody-induced dissociation of keratinocytes is caused by direct inhibition of Dsg1 transinteraction or by secondary cellular responses. Here we show in an in vitro system that IgGs purified from PF patient sera caused cellular dissociation of cultured human keratinocytes as well as significant release of Dsg1-coated microbeads attached to Dsg-containing sites on the keratinocyte cellular surface. However, cell dissociation and bead release induced by PF-IgGs was not caused by direct steric hindrance of Dsg1 transinteraction, as demonstrated by single molecule atomic force measurements and by laser trapping of surface-bound Dsg1-coated microbeads. Rather, our experiments strongly indicate that PF-IgG–mediated dissociation events must involve autoantibody-triggered cellular signaling pathways, resulting in destabilization of Dsg1-based adhesive sites and desmosomes.
Jens Waschke, Paola Bruggeman, Werner Baumgartner, Detlef Zillikens, Detlev Drenckhahn
Harlequin ichthyosis (HI) is a devastating skin disorder with an unknown underlying cause. Abnormal keratinocyte lamellar granules (LGs) are a hallmark of HI skin. ABCA12 is a member of the ATP-binding cassette transporter family, and members of the ABCA subfamily are known to have closely related functions as lipid transporters. ABCA3 is involved in lipid secretion via LGs from alveolar type II cells, and missense mutations in ABCA12 have been reported to cause lamellar ichthyosis type 2, a milder form of ichthyosis. Therefore, we hypothesized that HI might be caused by mutations that lead to serious ABCA12 defects. We identify 5 distinct ABCA12 mutations, either in a compound heterozygous or homozygous state, in patients from 4 HI families. All the mutations resulted in truncation or deletion of highly conserved regions of ABCA12. Immunoelectron microscopy revealed that ABCA12 localized to LGs in normal epidermal keratinocytes. We confirmed that ABCA12 defects cause congested lipid secretion in cultured HI keratinocytes and succeeded in obtaining the recovery of LG lipid secretion after corrective gene transfer of ABCA12. We concluded that ABCA12 works as an epidermal keratinocyte lipid transporter and that defective ABCA12 results in a loss of the skin lipid barrier, leading to HI. Our findings not only allow DNA-based early prenatal diagnosis but also suggest the possibility of gene therapy for HI.
Masashi Akiyama, Yoriko Sugiyama-Nakagiri, Kaori Sakai, James R. McMillan, Maki Goto, Ken Arita, Yukiko Tsuji-Abe, Nobuko Tabata, Kentaro Matsuoka, Rikako Sasaki, Daisuke Sawamura, Hiroshi Shimizu
Pemphigus is a life-threatening blistering disorder of the skin and mucous membranes caused by pathogenic autoantibodies to desmosomal adhesion proteins desmoglein 3 (Dsg3) and Dsg1. Mechanisms of antibody pathogenicity are difficult to characterize using polyclonal patient sera. Using antibody phage display, we have isolated repertoires of human anti-Dsg mAbs as single-chain variable-region fragments (scFvs) from a patient with active mucocutaneous pemphigus vulgaris. ScFv mAbs demonstrated binding to Dsg3 or Dsg1 alone, or both Dsg3 and Dsg1. Inhibition ELISA showed that the epitopes defined by these scFvs are blocked by autoantibodies from multiple pemphigus patients. Injection of scFvs into neonatal mice identified 2 pathogenic scFvs that caused blisters histologically similar to those observed in pemphigus patients. Similarly, these 2 scFvs, but not others, induced cell sheet dissociation of cultured human keratinocytes, indicating that both pathogenic and nonpathogenic antibodies were isolated. Genetic analysis of these mAbs showed restricted patterns of heavy and light chain gene usage, which were distinct for scFvs with different desmoglein-binding specificities. Detailed characterization of these pemphigus mAbs should lead to a better understanding of the immunopathogenesis of disease and to more specifically targeted therapeutic approaches.
Aimee S. Payne, Ken Ishii, Stephen Kacir, Chenyan Lin, Hong Li, Yasushi Hanakawa, Kazuyuki Tsunoda, Masayuki Amagai, John R. Stanley, Don L. Siegel
Desmogleins (Dsgs), cadherin-type cell adhesion molecules, are targeted in skin-blistering diseases such as pemphigus and staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS). The role of Dsg4, a new isoform, was investigated in these diseases. Dsg4 was recognized by 30 (77%) of 39 pemphigus sera containing anti-Dsg1 IgG but not by 16 pemphigus sera containing no anti-Dsg1 IgG or by 34 normal control sera. The Dsg4 immunoreactivity of these sera was abolished by removal of anti-Dsg1 IgG. Conversely, the removal of anti-Dsg4 IgG from pemphigus sera reduced the immunoreactivity against Dsg1 only 13.8% ± 8.8% (n = 23) and did not affect its ability to induce blisters in neonatal mice. IgG that was affinity-purified on Dsg4 recognized Dsg1 but failed to induce blisters, while IgG purified on Dsg1 from the same pemphigus foliaceus sera induced blisters. Thus, pemphigus sera show Dsg4 reactivity due to cross-reactivity of a subset of anti-Dsg1 IgG, and the Dsg4/Dsg1–cross-reacting IgG has no demonstrable pathogenic effect. In addition, Dsg4 was not cleaved by exfoliative toxins that induce blisters in SSSS. These findings suggest that Dsg4 may play a role other than adhesion and that the cross-reactivity of desmoglein autoantibodies should be factored into the framework of future studies of autoimmune mechanisms in pemphigus.
Takeshi Nagasaka, Koji Nishifuji, Takayuki Ota, Neil V. Whittock, Masayuki Amagai
Dermatitis herpetiformis (DH) is an autoimmune blistering skin disorder that is associated with gluten sensitivity. It presents as a papulovesicular rash and is often associated with enteropathy. The rash resolves when the patient is placed on a gluten-free diet and/or dapsone. DH, as well as celiac disease, is tightly associated with DQ2 and DQ8. A novel mouse model for DH is described that utilizes the NOD background and the HLA-DQ8 transgene. The addition of DQ8 contributes sensitivity to gliadin, and the addition of the NOD background contributes to autoimmunity and pathogenesis. Fifteen NOD DQ8+ mice of 90 that were sensitized to gluten developed blistering pathology similar to that seen in DH. Neutrophil infiltration of the dermis, deposition of IgA at the dermal-epidermal junction, and a complete reversal of the blistering phenomenon with the administration of a gluten-free diet with or without dapsone were observed. None of the 3 blistering mice examined had small-bowel pathology. This animal model of DH will be useful to determine the specificity of the IgA deposits, as well as the pathogenic mechanisms that occur in the skin as a result of gluten ingestion.
Eric Marietta, Kay Black, Michael Camilleri, Patricia Krause, Roy S. Rogers III, Chella David, Mark R. Pittelkow, Joseph A. Murray
Lichen sclerosus is a common, acquired chronic inflammatory skin disease of unknown etiology, although circulating autoantibodies to the glycoprotein extracellular matrix protein 1 (ECM1) have been detected in most patients’ sera. We have examined the nature of ECM1 epitopes in lichen sclerosus sera, developed an ELISA system for serologic diagnosis, and assessed clinicopathological correlation between ELISA titer and disease. Epitope-mapping studies revealed that lichen sclerosus sera most frequently recognized the distal second tandem repeat domain and carboxyl-terminus of ECM1. We analyzed serum autoantibody reactivity against this immunodominant epitope in 413 individuals (95 subjects with lichen sclerosus, 161 normal control subjects, and 157 subjects with other autoimmune basement membrane or sclerosing diseases). The ELISA assay was highly sensitive; 76 of 95 lichen sclerosus patients (80.0%) exhibited IgG reactivity. It was also highly specific (93.7%) in discriminating between lichen sclerosus and other disease/control sera. Higher anti-ECM1 titers also correlated with more longstanding and refractory disease and cases complicated by squamous cell carcinoma. Furthermore, passive transfer of affinity-purified patient IgG reproduced some histologic and immunopathologic features of lichen sclerosus skin. This new ELISA is valuable for the accurate detection and quantification of anti-ECM1 autoantibodies. Moreover, the values may have clinical significance in patients with lichen sclerosus.
Noritaka Oyama, Ien Chan, Sallie M. Neill, Andrew P. South, Fenella Wojnarowska, Yoshio Kawakami, David D’Cruz, Kirti Mepani, Graham J. Hughes, Balbir S. Bhogal, Fumio Kaneko, Martin M. Black, John A. McGrath
Solar ultraviolet B (UVB) radiation induces cutaneous ornithine decarboxylase (ODC), the first enzyme in the polyamine-biosynthesis pathway, which drives continued proliferation and clonal expansion of initiated (mutated) cells, leading to tumorigenesis. Therefore ODC is a potentially important target for chemoprevention of basal cell carcinomas (BCCs), the majority of which have mutations in the tumor-suppressor gene known as patched (PTCH). To assess this possibility, we first overexpressed ODC in the skin of Ptch1+/– mice using a keratin 6 (K6) promoter that directs constitutive ODC expression in the outer root sheath of the hair follicle. UVB irradiation of these mice accelerated induction of BCCs as compared with their Ptch1+/– littermates. To further verify the role of ODC in BCC tumorigenesis, we used an antizyme (AZ) approach to inhibit ODC activity in the Ptch1+/– mice. Ptch1+/– mice with AZ overexpression driven by the K6 promoter were resistant to the induction of BCCs by UVB. Furthermore, oral administration of the suicidal ODC inhibitor α-difluoromethylornithine reduced UVB-induced BCCs in Ptch1+/– mice. These results demonstrate the crucial importance of ODC for the induction of BCCs and indicate that chemopreventive strategies directed at inhibiting this enzyme may be useful in reducing BCCs in human populations.
Xiuwei Tang, Arianna L. Kim, David J. Feith, Anthony E. Pegg, Justin Russo, Hong Zhang, Michelle Aszterbaum, Levy Kopelovich, Ervin H. Epstein Jr., David R. Bickers, Mohammad Athar